29 May, 2022
Academic Writers Galore
Academic writing has been on the rise over the past one decade due to embracing of technology. Technology has allows scholars and students alike to hire academic writers to tackle their tasks at a cost effective amounts. Academic writers has allowed students to continue working while continuing with their academic endeavors. Academic writing allows students, researchers and scholars alike to access quality content written within a limited period of time. They can further use the materials as a reference to further explore the topic of study. Academic writers help students through pointing them in the correct path thus reducing the hassle involve while undertaking studies.
The academic writing allows academic writers around the globe to sell their skills in different online platforms. As a result academic writers are able to make a living for themselves while providing services to consumers. The academic writing platform can be easily accessed by the students and academic writers alike. The platforms allows the students to directly select a writer from a large pool of academic writers. The students are also allowed to communicate directly with the writers thus ensuring that information exchange between the two parties is guaranteed. As a result the quality of service offered to the consumers is high.
The concept of academic writing has been in existence for many years and it has been fueled up by easy access of technology. The widespread of academic writers around the globe has given rise to specialization. This is where academic writers have specialized based on niches that they are able to produce high quality content to their consumers.
25 May, 2022
Public policies in media and information literacy: the legacy of John Dewey
1 LITERATURE REVIEW
The Dewey's argument regarding the great effect and spread of communication technology is also correct. According to Michel and others this is because real-time telecommunications are so prevalent in our modern dynamic global media culture (2017). There isn't much use in continuing to differentiate between the private and the public at this point. Even the concepts of "private" and "public" are becoming less meaningful in today's environment. Even the distinction between "direct" and "indirect" modes of communication is insufficient in today's world (Michel, Frau-Meigs, & Velez, 2017). According to Michel and others (2017)"Direct communication" is an issue that is difficult to answer in the light of today's global digital real-time interaction and information transmission via television, video conferencing, and Skype. Isn't it about time that we broadened our definition of "direct contact" to include the "face-to-face" immediacy given by the internet in addition to the more traditional face-to-face interaction that takes place in the actual world? On the other hand, it does not seem that FaceTime, video conferencing, or Skype are examples of direct modes of communication. It is essential to keep in mind that any form of visual communication conveys all of the indicators that form direct reaction. Michel and others agrees with Pawley (2003) further states that indicators include signs such as emotions and mood as well as nuanced differentiations of meanings of all kinds, and they do so with all of the vivacity that is conceivably possible in a physical presence or at least almost all of it (Michel, Frau-Meigs, & Velez, 2017)
In addition, the instantaneous communication between computers and the autonomous decision-making by computers in the stock market are two of the immediate and extremely major implications of ubiquitous computing, at a rate of perhaps billions of dollars every day (Pawley, 2003). It is feasible that widespread "democratic" voting, such as buttons labeled "agree" or "like," and simultaneous intercommunication between the people of the majority of nations would make it possible to implement voting techniques and public agreements that include large numbers of people. In point of fact, effective voting and consensus-building on a national or global scale may already be accomplished via the use of the internet. "Internet revolutions" and uprisings are growing increasingly prevalent in our modern day, as seen by the Arab Spring, for instance. As a consequence of this, the new media carries with it the capacity to impact social and political change on a scale that is nothing short of revolutionary. Dewey was accurate in his assessment of the strength of contemporary communication technologies, despite the fact that he had limited experience with the radio and the telephone. On the other hand, he was not able to foresee the extensive variety of choices and opportunities made available by digital communication and the multi-media technologies of today. According to Grizzle and others Deway (2018) had an excellent understanding of the social power of such phenomena, namely how rapidly people react to acts and events, as well as how difficult it may be for those who are exposed to them to deal with the media's affects, whether they be active or passive (Grizzle, et al., 2018). His theory on the positive and negative impacts of communication medium is well-suited to the intense, emotion-conveying multimedia contacts that are commonplace in today's world. The uproar on social media in recent years may be termed a "media revolution" that has the potential to bring down dictatorships while simultaneously advancing individual liberties.
We may come to realize that instantaneous multi-media communications of this global scope are mostly beneficial in terms of expanding personal as well as societal liberties and liberating individuals. This realization could come about if we come to see that instantaneous multi-media communications of this global scope have a global scope (Haras & Brasley, 2011). Because of this, it is clear that it may be used for a wide variety of fishing techniques, including mobbing and trolling, trolling and trolling, trolling and trolling, trolling and trolling, and so on. There are immoral e-communications that may take place on both a personal and a public level.
This is undeniably a public outcome of an intentional communication activity since the tele-media is used to propagate discussions, controversies, and false allegations. This is what Dewey would refer to as a "inevitable public" consequence since it enables real-time reaction and reverberation on a worldwide scale. Some people's ability to maintain their privacy looks to have been compromised by the internet. In light of new media and "telepresence," and ubiquitous transnational responsiveness, it is important, according to a research that was published not too long ago, to reassess the basic categories of the distinction between "private" and "public." To use Dewey's terminology, contemporary communication technology may assist bring the public and the private together, so blurring boundaries such as "direct" and "indirect" in the same way that it does between "private" and "public” (Moravčíková, 2017). As a result, it would seem that Dewey's distinctions between the public and the private ought to be completely abandoned. In today's environment, there is a blurring of the lines between privacy and notoriety. Some people are so preoccupied with exposing their private life to the public that they are eager to tell the world about even their most horrible acts of cruelty or crime.
1.1 Digital media and policies
1.1.1 General media regulation
The people of Europe have a long tradition of attempting novel approaches to the management of the media. When the act was finally put into operation in 1766, Nicholas von Oelreich, the last literary censor, was fired from his position. After that, there were a number of different efforts to reestablish control, one of which was the founding of the first movie censorship board in the history of the world in 1911 (Barnett, 1997). It was the last remnant of a time when persons in power claimed the capacity to select what information the public may view until the board was finally eliminated in 2011. The research concluded that censoring of motion pictures places an unjustified restriction on individuals' rights to engage in free expression in the contemporary media landscape. It has been difficult for media rules in Europe to keep up with the tremendous speed of technological breakthroughs that have been taking place in the region for such a significant amount of time. The Act had been adopted before there was even a concept of the internet at a time when most mass media outlets were owned and run by publishers who had more or less selfless goals. The proliferation of the internet has brought about significant changes in the nature of the media landscape, blurring the lines between journalists and the general public, as well as between those who make content and those who disseminate it. The public now has sophisticated skills in relation to mass media as a result of the proliferation of smart phones and the creation of worldwide real-time distribution platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. At the very end, there was a democratization of public opinion on a scale never seen before. People who previously had to own a newspaper or other kind of media in order to exercise their right to freedom of the press was no longer a requirement. Even while it was still feasible for people's perspectives to be documented in books and newspapers for all time, Gutenberg's Parenthesis was drawing to a close. It was a throwback to the days when people told stories to one other face-to-face, but this time the effect was heightened. Before the invention of the printing press, storytellers had to personally interact with their listeners. In the realm of post-mass media, reaching an audience on a global scale is as easy as clicking a button. The move from mass media to mass media for the people ushered in a paradigm change in the industry. It is still an excellent notion despite the fact that it does not strike a balance in terms of the information that is sent or the responsibility that is exercised. In addition to this, it caused an unparalleled volume of erroneous and malicious content to be circulated on an unprecedented scale. The legislation governing the media in the European Union is founded on the principle that power is inherent in the nation states and is composed of several aspects with their origins in the constitution (Trappel, 2019). It made it impossible for the state to restrict any publication or transmission, and it granted some rights to the media, as journalists were regarded as democratic actors who had a responsibility to hold authority to account. This ensured that the people had the right to access information, and it made it impossible for the state to restrict any publication or transmission. In the modern, digitalized, and globalized media environment, the power has shifted from the national governments to the firms that operate the various digital platforms. These businesses are the owners of the most crucial new public discourse places. To this day, there is no comparable rule on the books that makes it illegal for search engines and social media platforms to remove content from their sites. It has not been made possible for lawmakers, state agencies, or the media to investigate these new power centers since they have not been allowed similar privileges. The digital behemoths are equipped with enormous powers for public monitoring. The capacity for scrutiny possessed by the general people has been drastically reduced as a direct consequence of the newly created imbalance. At the same time as the fundamental foundations of media policy were being weakened, the value of legislation began to decrease.
1.1.2 New policy measures
In 2015, national media inquiries were established throughout Europe with the purpose of investigating new policy measures that may enable people have greater access to a diversity of opinions in order for them to be more involved citizens (Piechowicz, 2016). The investigation developed a comprehensive analysis of the various threats, including unequal access to modern communication infrastructure, data-based business models, and the exploitation of vulnerable users; the weakening of the financial sustainability of quality news organizations; and the increasing amount of biased content. All of these issues were covered in the investigation. The study proposed both short-term and long-term initiatives that both reinforced the critical role of legacy media and the state's responsibilities to do so. The goal of these efforts was to guarantee a healthy democracy that had a wide number of people actively participating in it. In the near term, there was an emphasis on reforming press subsidies with the intention of fostering excellent journalism and a varied choice of media channels for consumers of news. The proposal called for the conventional print-based subsidies to be transformed into a platform-neutral aid. As part of the plan, there were provisions made for financial help for "journalistic deserts." Extended efforts included establishing a more equal tax burden for content producers and distributors, increasing cooperation among governmental authorities to prevent the impacts of misinformation and propaganda, and increasing the legal protections for journalists as well as media consumers. All of these measures were taken in an effort to combat the negative effects of misinformation and propaganda. According to one of the most important results from an inquiry that was carried out by the National Commission on Media Literacy, "a national effort to promote media literacy in the general population is urgently required (Piechowicz, 2016)."
1.1.3 Policy network role in education governance
When it comes to making decisions on public resources like schools and highways, a concept known as "networked governance" is often used. Examples of this concept include public-private partnerships. This is now possible in Europe as a result of changes to the market and decentralization in the public sector that have taken place during the last two decades (Galey-Horn & Ferrare, 2020). Because educational technology (also known as ed-tech) offers such substantial business opportunities, this was able to be accomplished. The marketplaces for education, technology, and entrepreneurship are all linked at this point, and each one is worth many billions of dollars. As a consequence of this, a more ordered space has emerged, within which educational ideas may be streamlined and controlled. As a consequence of this, the conditions under which democratic policymaking takes place have been transformed as a result of the opening of the door for new players with a wide range of interests to gain access to and have an impact on decisions regarding policy issues that have an impact on both the theory and the practice of education.
1.2 Digital technology in enhancing communication and improving the society
1.2.1 Digital tech role in bringing people together
Our community inherently social nature, we maintain a constant engagement with the people and environments that surround us. Our bodies begin to convey anger, anxiety, excitement, or compassion within seconds of us reading a newspaper, watching a television program, or talking with people online. This shift always causes some kind of physical effect, whether it is obvious or not. Recent studies in the area of neurology have shown that humans are able to subconsciously impact one another's neurological systems in a number of different ways (Miller, 2017). Our heart rate can be sped up or slowed down by words, glances, or voice signals, and our mirror neurons allow us to genuinely feel the pain or delight that we perceive in others, regardless of whether they appear on a computer, in a book, or in our immediate proximity. Our heart rate can be sped up or slowed down by words, glances, or voice signals. It is not just a question of how images, words, and sounds effect our bodies and brains biologically; rather, it is also a question of how media technology affects our perceptions of time and space, as well as the emotional displays of others and our own social reactions. Different forms of media have developed differing degrees of bias as they have expanded over space and time. The pace or rhythm that they impose on our day-to-day lives and on society as a whole has a profound influence on the emotional and social well-being of each of us as individuals. Because of the faster speed and more efficient transmission of content that comes with each new medium, an increasing number of individuals are being reached via means of communication that is mediated by computers. When it comes to interpersonal interaction and group participation, digital technologies present new avenues for boosting the emotional experiences that previous media have supplied us. These new avenues may also be used to improve the emotional experiences that we get from traditional media. Technology and social interactions have grown more entangled as a result of the global proliferation of social networking sites (Antonucci, Ajrouch, & Manalel, 2017). These sites allow users to stay connected and share, alter, and link to content at all times, which has led to a closer relationship between the two. Because of this, the practice of digital sociality currently takes place in very complicated informational and emotional contexts that are regulated by algorithmic governance and include unprecedented degrees of group interaction.
1.2.2 Socialization and effective atmosphere
According to Miller (2008) when it comes to communicating with people online, social networking is both analogous to and distinct from face-to-face communication in both its similarities and differences a point supported by Bruggencate and others (2019). When we connect with other people, we have a fundamental need to be accepted by them and to have positive feelings about ourselves. This stems from our intrinsic propensity for sociality and our want to be part of a community. This is analogous to how we experience and conduct ourselves in the context of physical encounters. Our social behaviors and demands are also adapted to the technological affordance, which is the type of communication that is permitted given the context and the capabilities of the technology. This affordance refers to the kind of communication that is made possible by the technological advancements. Technology does not only mediate sociality; rather, it transforms it. As a result, individuals engage in novel social behaviors and experience novel emotional atmospheres, which in turn influence how they see and experience the world. Since its inception, social networking websites have been widely used as a kind of technology to facilitate the formation of relationships via the sharing of feelings. The present form of digital communication portrays itself as the primary infrastructure of interpersonal and social relationships (Bruggencate, Luijkx, & Sturm, 2019). This is due to the fact that it places a significant focus on connection and mobility. It has been suggested that sites for social networking would improve communication between people and will also increase the amount of information that is shared collectively. Even so, the constant flow of instant messaging creates an emotive and highly emotional environment in which it is easy for us to be carried away and caught in the rhythms and raptures of an infinite stream of pictures, alerts, views, and assumptions that require our attention. In this environment, we may easily be carried away and caught in the rhythms and raptures of an endless stream of information. Communication on social networking sites is governed not only by speed but also by the emotional depth of the sender as well as the concision of the message. The time-saving function of compressed communication is manifested in short text messages, micro-blogging, comments, and/or tagging. This function is on the rise. According to Miller, maintaining a connected presence in the ever-expanding social networks of today requires consistently keeping in touch with one's connections (2008).
1.2.3 Culture, social norms and emotions
New sorts of group dynamics have emerged as a direct result of the manner in which social networking sites produce relational and emotional impulses. These new types of group dynamics have been facilitated by computer-mediated communication. When compared to other modes of communication like as print and television, the group community that exists on social networks is quite different from the imagined or abstract collectives that are supposed to characterize these media (Steinert & Dennis, 2022). In the past, being physically involved in a crowd was thought to offer distinctive qualities, such as the capacity to get an instant emotional response and the ability to communicate thoughts and information with a huge number of others. On social media platforms, it is not unusual to see relationships of this sort between users who know one other. Emotional immediacy is a vital affordance because of the variety of reactions and feedback loops that elevate the mood of the group. Collective emotions, by their very nature, change swiftly from one state to another. They are always on the move, jumping from one body to the next, increasing in number until they disappear and are replaced by new ones. They are constantly being replaced by new ones.
The connections that make up a social network are organized in a manner that makes it easier for people to convey passionate and emotional feelings to one another (Steinert & Dennis, 2022). Affective rhythms, such as those of love and affirmation, lend themselves particularly well to the expression of negative emotions such as hatred, fury, and fear. Some concepts and arguments need less thinking because of the intensity of their commitment, in contrast to others that are more ambiguous and have more nuances. Because of how we are now feeling, we often get the impression that we know something for a fact, even when this may not be the case. The authenticity of an initial emotion is experienced, making it uncomfortable, improper, surprising, and so on. In this context, objective facts are of less significance than appeals to feelings and ideas that already exist. The sharing of feelings, also known as affect transmission, is always a socially mediated process. Someone or something generates emotional reactions and emotions toward an object, which may subsequently be communicated to other people. These responses and feelings might be positive or negative.
Our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions of how others act all contribute to our sense of belonging to a certain group. Understanding how emotional communication may develop within the framework of a group requires a number of steps, one of which is the identification and definition of one's social identity. The social norms that regulate behavior in face-to-face interactions do not apply to the emotional outpourings that occur on social networking sites because of the possibility that they may be transferred and conveyed to other users. In today's world of computer-mediated communication, the restrictions that one must adhere to in terms of their feelings, attitudes, and behaviors are becoming less relevant. The invisibility of the isolated body, which means that people can act out without fear of social stigma or shame, and the existence of smaller group communities are two factors that contribute to a person's inability to regulate their emotions and emotional outbursts. Both of these factors help a person who is unable to control their emotions and emotional outbursts. It is becoming more normal practice for the standards and social affirmations of a certain group to be given priority in public places above broader societal norms and expectations. Social support, praise, and recognition among a group's members are equally as crucial to the experience of anxiety and danger from outside groups as the notion that certain groups are linked together by an external threat (Döveling, Harju, & Sommer, 2018). The social bond consists of the satisfying feeling of belonging to a group as well as the pleasant experience of expressing one's indignation and the object that it is targeted at with other individuals who feel the same way as you do who share the same sentiment.
1.3 Role of digital media in democracy and eliminating biasness
1.3.1 Digital media as a link in democratic chain
According to Weare studies conducted all across the globe, new forms of media and modern journalism may contribute to the dissemination of exaggerations and lies in a variety of different ways (2012). No matter how highly educated a someone may be, many people have reported that it is difficult for them to alter their beliefs, and this is especially true when the information presented to them is in direct opposition to their own personal values. Additionally, it might be difficult for younger generations to reevaluate politically charged historical narratives (Weare, 2012). People may more easily find themselves in what are being dubbed "digital echo chambers" since the proliferation of digital media has made it easier for them to be exposed to opinions that are compatible with their own worldviews. As a result of search engines, social media platforms, and news feeds modifying their algorithms to better satisfy our "needs," filter bubbles are produced as an unintended side effect. The presence of an informational "echo chamber" has been empirically shown by research that used data that was freely available to Facebook users. They came to the conclusion that "people typically choose to select and share content according to a given narrative and to discard the rest," which demonstrates how scientific knowledge and deceit are passed around in distinct networks. By using public services and popular media, individuals have the potential to build bridges amongst themselves. According to the findings of study conducted in Europe Dimitrova and others (2014), engagement in community activities has a direct bearing on people's reading habits (Dimitrova, Shehata, Strömbäck, & Nord, 2014). According to a number of in-depth studies conducted around Europe on the subject of their feeds, SVT, Aftonbladet, and Expressen have been discovered to be the most popular sources of news for adolescents in that region. As part of this study, students from all around Europe conducted a thorough investigation of the content of their individual news feeds. Their investigation revealed that just around 9 percent of the reports in the news could be relied upon as accurate.
The information that connected to health and medical, as well as themes relating to art and entertainment, was considered to be the least reliable. It was determined that public service media outlets, in particular, were trustworthy providers of information. On the other hand Dommett states that the dependability of a number of other news websites was called into doubt (2021). Before the election in 2018, a large number of young people put a significant amount of their trust in established media outlets. It is possible to build bridges using the power of news, but it seems that young people in Europe have obstacles when it comes to accessing the media as well as maintaining an interest in it. According to the findings of a recent research, young people in Europe do not live in informational echo chambers when it comes to taking in the news. Young people whose families have a subscription to prominent morning newspapers that hide their content behind "paywalls" are evidence that segregation is blatantly present in today's society (Dommett, 2021). By guaranteeing that all people have equal access to high-quality news, we can fight segregation and enhance democracy at the same time.
1.3.2 Democratic discourse
Individuals participating in democratic processes need to be well-informed and actively involved, and democratic public debates need to be accessible to as many people as possible in order to be open and welcoming to all participants (Spinner, 2012). The ability to freely express oneself and gain information, in addition to having access to media outlets that are both free and independent, are the pillars around which this kind of access is built. Individuals are able to express themselves and formulate ideas in a variety of everyday settings, both public and private, which are examples of the democratic ideal being put into effect. When people have a sense of safety and security, it increases the likelihood that they will participate in democratic discourse. Because of the rapid technical breakthroughs that have taken place in the digital sphere over the course of the last several decades, an unprecedented number of people are now capable of exchanging and participating in information, ideas, and perspectives. Because of the proliferation of the internet and other social media platforms, there has been a significant change in the manner in which democratic discussion may be carried out.
The advent of new challenges brought about by digitization, such as the proliferation of so-called "junk news" and an increase in hate speech and threats, has been shown to be detrimental to democracy and polite public dialogue. As a result, the discussion environment has become more contentious and polarized. The same cutting-edge technology that is enabling new ways for people to engage, new business opportunities, and new opportunities for learning and education may also violate people's privacy and civil freedoms. As a consequence of these challenges, people may develop less faith in institutions and in one another (Zhuravskaya, Petrova, & Enikolopov, 2020). This may result in an environment of negativity that inhibits individuals from participating more actively in public discourse, both in general and on digital platforms. According to the findings of certain studies, elected officials and journalists on the local level have a tendency to scale down their activities as a result of threats and intimidation. One statistic suggests that one local elected official in Europe has been harassed in some form, and as a direct consequence of this, one in every three local elected officials in Europe has chosen to remain silent.
Conventional media companies are having to rethink their business models in response to the increased competition from digital media companies because of fundamental changes occurring in people's habits about the information and entertainment they consume. Europe, along with the majority of other continents, is now discussing the most effective ways to deal with these problems. The significant impact that enormous internet platforms have on democracies, in addition to the duties, tasks, and responsibilities that come along with them, are also key causes for concern. There are a number of concerns that are now the subject of controversy, including power concentration, transparency, regulation vs self-regulation, and the security of people's data and integrity (Lorenz-Spreen, Oswald, & Lewandowsky, 2022). Member states, internet platforms, and other stakeholders are now having a conversation as part of the European Commission's efforts to address digital challenges such as fake news and disinformation. Through programs such as civic education, digital literacy, and media and information literacy, there is a rising awareness of the need of equipping people with more capabilities and expanding the scope of their knowledge. This awareness is accompanied by a growing sentiment of urgency.
1.3.3 Question of democracy and hate-speech
In June of 2018, the European red/green Government coalition published a document titled "Strategy for Strong Democracy: Promote, Consolidate, and protect." This document provided a summary of the current state of democracy in Europe as well as the challenges it faces, including developments such as segregation, lack of participation, fragmented media use, and various types of threats to public discourse, including extremism, hate speech, disinformation, and efforts to influence the political process. The document was intended to address the state of democracy (Reid, 2020). The plan proposes a variety of different courses of action that should be taken with the objective of making democracy more robust. Under the heading of "Democracy Learning," initiatives are discussed that have resulted in changes to policy, which have taken the shape of assignments and rewards given to actors in relevant fields. These initiatives include the creation of educational materials on democratic principles for immigrants who have only just arrived in the country, the improvement and growth of the role played by public libraries, and the reinforcement of the function of public libraries. In addition to these initiatives, the government has made it a priority to improve media and information literacy. This improvement is being accomplished through a national media and information literacy campaign as well as an emphasis on digital literacy and source critique in educational institutions. The Nordic Information and Communication Knowledge Center, also known as Nordicom, has been a significant contributor to both the foundation and the impetus for this endeavor (Trappel, 2019). In June of 2018, a comprehensive strategy on the aforementioned subjects was released, during which it was revealed what the present condition of media and information literacy is in the European Union, as well as the challenges and opportunities that lay ahead.
At major political events in today's world, it is almost expected for attendees to have conversations on the impact that search engines and social media platforms have on the way information circulates in society (Tsesis, 2019). To say that this situation puts democracy's fundamental principles at jeopardy would be an understatement: what's at issue here is control over information and knowledge. While it is claimed that commercial algorithms that are fueled by user-generated data make ideological divisions worse, it is a frequently held belief that targeted disinformation operations spread rapidly and easily across our digital information infrastructure. When it comes to finding a solution to this problem, there are often four different degrees of consideration:
1. Platform companies should be responsible for their own self-regulation;
2. Legislation should be changed and strengthened;
3. Support for the production, transmission, and vetting of credible knowledge through established institutions such as schools, libraries, and legacy media; and
4. Individuals should take responsibility for critically evaluating the information that they come across.
These two aspects, which come later in the list, are the ones that we want to discuss in this short article. To be more specific, we are concerned in the manner in which critical evaluation of information, which is an essential component of MIL, is expressed in contexts such as educational institutions and public libraries (Paz, Montero-Díaz, & Moreno-Delgado, 2020). What does it mean to evaluate information in light of the modern culture that we live in? Where is the benefit in that? How crucial is it to be able to argue against a statement when one is trying to make an evaluation of the information? Is there another method of evaluating information that may be used in certain circumstances that would be more appropriate? Do we need a broader perspective when evaluating information, one that takes into consideration the infrastructure that is engaged in the process by which we are informed? This raises the question of how elements such as feeds from social media platforms or search engine results might be included into the evaluation of information. In addition, what are the potential repercussions of defining information evaluation as a task that lies completely with the individual? In order to address these and other problems, it is required to conduct an investigation of the limitations posed by principally placing the onus of responsibility for evaluating information on the individual. In order to overcome these and other problems, we propose using the concepts of frictions in relevance and infrastructure meaning-making.
1.3.4 Democratic importance of youths media habits
There are a variety of ways in which differences in the amount of media that young people consume might have an effect on their political socialization. The term "political socialization" refers to the processes that individuals go through in the setting of a variety of social circumstances in order to mature into democratic citizens who have identities, interests, values, and unique ways of participating in politics (Kamau, 2017). There are three spheres of influence that have been affected by the media consumption patterns of young people.
According to the findings of the study by Keating and Melis, the usage of social media may cause these values to shift (2017). When people use social media to remain current on the most recent news and social problems, it's possible that their humanistic and self-transcendent beliefs are strengthened as a result. It has been shown that the most common uses of social media, such as maintaining contact with friends, publishing photographs of everyday life, and reading blogs, have a tendency to lower humanistic and altruistic values, while simultaneously encouraging hedonistic and self-focused values. The concepts of self-presentation, lifestyle, and consumerism are all over the place on social media, which is full with people trying to promote themselves (Keating & Melis, 2017). When young people participate in social media platforms, they bring their values with them, but the differences across groups become more obvious.
It has been shown that people's political knowledge, interest, and engagement in the democratic process all rise as they increase their intake of news. The act of keeping up with the news is sure to provoke both discussion and argument. For communities in which young people are given the opportunity to develop their own opinions and become more politically involved. According to the findings by Zyad (2021) students may develop an interest in current events related to politics and society while attending school. Consumption of news also has a role in the development and deepening of significant gaps among young people. Those who are already involved and active in a certain community have several reasons to keep themselves informed on the most recent happenings in that community. It is becoming more challenging to critically evaluate and examine the news that is shared on social media (Zyad, 2021). People's lifestyle choices and routines have a tendency to become more relevant to the extent to which they are exposed to genuine news, which may then lead to greater inequalities.
According to the findings by Chen and Stilinovic (2020), a significant number of young people are reluctant to express their political viewpoints on social media for fear that they will be questioned, exposed, and criticized without having the opportunity to defend themselves or determine how their words will be disseminated. A lot of individuals share their thoughts online, but they do so on websites where they know they will be seen by others who have the same point of view as them (Chen & Stilinovic, 2020). This is done so that they won't add to the environment of political division. In addition, the split between those who want to publicly express their ideas and those who would rather keep their thoughts to themselves may become even wider as a result of the use of social media.
The Dewey's argument regarding the great effect and spread of communication technology is also correct. According to Michel and others this is because real-time telecommunications are so prevalent in our modern dynamic global media culture (2017). There isn't much use in continuing to differentiate between the private and the public at this point. Even the concepts of "private" and "public" are becoming less meaningful in today's environment. Even the distinction between "direct" and "indirect" modes of communication is insufficient in today's world (Michel, Frau-Meigs, & Velez, 2017). According to Michel and others (2017)"Direct communication" is an issue that is difficult to answer in the light of today's global digital real-time interaction and information transmission via television, video conferencing, and Skype. Isn't it about time that we broadened our definition of "direct contact" to include the "face-to-face" immediacy given by the internet in addition to the more traditional face-to-face interaction that takes place in the actual world? On the other hand, it does not seem that FaceTime, video conferencing, or Skype are examples of direct modes of communication. It is essential to keep in mind that any form of visual communication conveys all of the indicators that form direct reaction. Michel and others agrees with Pawley (2003) further states that indicators include signs such as emotions and mood as well as nuanced differentiations of meanings of all kinds, and they do so with all of the vivacity that is conceivably possible in a physical presence or at least almost all of it (Michel, Frau-Meigs, & Velez, 2017)
In addition, the instantaneous communication between computers and the autonomous decision-making by computers in the stock market are two of the immediate and extremely major implications of ubiquitous computing, at a rate of perhaps billions of dollars every day (Pawley, 2003). It is feasible that widespread "democratic" voting, such as buttons labeled "agree" or "like," and simultaneous intercommunication between the people of the majority of nations would make it possible to implement voting techniques and public agreements that include large numbers of people. In point of fact, effective voting and consensus-building on a national or global scale may already be accomplished via the use of the internet. "Internet revolutions" and uprisings are growing increasingly prevalent in our modern day, as seen by the Arab Spring, for instance. As a consequence of this, the new media carries with it the capacity to impact social and political change on a scale that is nothing short of revolutionary. Dewey was accurate in his assessment of the strength of contemporary communication technologies, despite the fact that he had limited experience with the radio and the telephone. On the other hand, he was not able to foresee the extensive variety of choices and opportunities made available by digital communication and the multi-media technologies of today. According to Grizzle and others Deway (2018) had an excellent understanding of the social power of such phenomena, namely how rapidly people react to acts and events, as well as how difficult it may be for those who are exposed to them to deal with the media's affects, whether they be active or passive (Grizzle, et al., 2018). His theory on the positive and negative impacts of communication medium is well-suited to the intense, emotion-conveying multimedia contacts that are commonplace in today's world. The uproar on social media in recent years may be termed a "media revolution" that has the potential to bring down dictatorships while simultaneously advancing individual liberties.
We may come to realize that instantaneous multi-media communications of this global scope are mostly beneficial in terms of expanding personal as well as societal liberties and liberating individuals. This realization could come about if we come to see that instantaneous multi-media communications of this global scope have a global scope (Haras & Brasley, 2011). Because of this, it is clear that it may be used for a wide variety of fishing techniques, including mobbing and trolling, trolling and trolling, trolling and trolling, trolling and trolling, and so on. There are immoral e-communications that may take place on both a personal and a public level.
This is undeniably a public outcome of an intentional communication activity since the tele-media is used to propagate discussions, controversies, and false allegations. This is what Dewey would refer to as a "inevitable public" consequence since it enables real-time reaction and reverberation on a worldwide scale. Some people's ability to maintain their privacy looks to have been compromised by the internet. In light of new media and "telepresence," and ubiquitous transnational responsiveness, it is important, according to a research that was published not too long ago, to reassess the basic categories of the distinction between "private" and "public." To use Dewey's terminology, contemporary communication technology may assist bring the public and the private together, so blurring boundaries such as "direct" and "indirect" in the same way that it does between "private" and "public” (Moravčíková, 2017). As a result, it would seem that Dewey's distinctions between the public and the private ought to be completely abandoned. In today's environment, there is a blurring of the lines between privacy and notoriety. Some people are so preoccupied with exposing their private life to the public that they are eager to tell the world about even their most horrible acts of cruelty or crime.
1.1 Digital media and policies
1.1.1 General media regulation
The people of Europe have a long tradition of attempting novel approaches to the management of the media. When the act was finally put into operation in 1766, Nicholas von Oelreich, the last literary censor, was fired from his position. After that, there were a number of different efforts to reestablish control, one of which was the founding of the first movie censorship board in the history of the world in 1911 (Barnett, 1997). It was the last remnant of a time when persons in power claimed the capacity to select what information the public may view until the board was finally eliminated in 2011. The research concluded that censoring of motion pictures places an unjustified restriction on individuals' rights to engage in free expression in the contemporary media landscape. It has been difficult for media rules in Europe to keep up with the tremendous speed of technological breakthroughs that have been taking place in the region for such a significant amount of time. The Act had been adopted before there was even a concept of the internet at a time when most mass media outlets were owned and run by publishers who had more or less selfless goals. The proliferation of the internet has brought about significant changes in the nature of the media landscape, blurring the lines between journalists and the general public, as well as between those who make content and those who disseminate it. The public now has sophisticated skills in relation to mass media as a result of the proliferation of smart phones and the creation of worldwide real-time distribution platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. At the very end, there was a democratization of public opinion on a scale never seen before. People who previously had to own a newspaper or other kind of media in order to exercise their right to freedom of the press was no longer a requirement. Even while it was still feasible for people's perspectives to be documented in books and newspapers for all time, Gutenberg's Parenthesis was drawing to a close. It was a throwback to the days when people told stories to one other face-to-face, but this time the effect was heightened. Before the invention of the printing press, storytellers had to personally interact with their listeners. In the realm of post-mass media, reaching an audience on a global scale is as easy as clicking a button. The move from mass media to mass media for the people ushered in a paradigm change in the industry. It is still an excellent notion despite the fact that it does not strike a balance in terms of the information that is sent or the responsibility that is exercised. In addition to this, it caused an unparalleled volume of erroneous and malicious content to be circulated on an unprecedented scale. The legislation governing the media in the European Union is founded on the principle that power is inherent in the nation states and is composed of several aspects with their origins in the constitution (Trappel, 2019). It made it impossible for the state to restrict any publication or transmission, and it granted some rights to the media, as journalists were regarded as democratic actors who had a responsibility to hold authority to account. This ensured that the people had the right to access information, and it made it impossible for the state to restrict any publication or transmission. In the modern, digitalized, and globalized media environment, the power has shifted from the national governments to the firms that operate the various digital platforms. These businesses are the owners of the most crucial new public discourse places. To this day, there is no comparable rule on the books that makes it illegal for search engines and social media platforms to remove content from their sites. It has not been made possible for lawmakers, state agencies, or the media to investigate these new power centers since they have not been allowed similar privileges. The digital behemoths are equipped with enormous powers for public monitoring. The capacity for scrutiny possessed by the general people has been drastically reduced as a direct consequence of the newly created imbalance. At the same time as the fundamental foundations of media policy were being weakened, the value of legislation began to decrease.
1.1.2 New policy measures
In 2015, national media inquiries were established throughout Europe with the purpose of investigating new policy measures that may enable people have greater access to a diversity of opinions in order for them to be more involved citizens (Piechowicz, 2016). The investigation developed a comprehensive analysis of the various threats, including unequal access to modern communication infrastructure, data-based business models, and the exploitation of vulnerable users; the weakening of the financial sustainability of quality news organizations; and the increasing amount of biased content. All of these issues were covered in the investigation. The study proposed both short-term and long-term initiatives that both reinforced the critical role of legacy media and the state's responsibilities to do so. The goal of these efforts was to guarantee a healthy democracy that had a wide number of people actively participating in it. In the near term, there was an emphasis on reforming press subsidies with the intention of fostering excellent journalism and a varied choice of media channels for consumers of news. The proposal called for the conventional print-based subsidies to be transformed into a platform-neutral aid. As part of the plan, there were provisions made for financial help for "journalistic deserts." Extended efforts included establishing a more equal tax burden for content producers and distributors, increasing cooperation among governmental authorities to prevent the impacts of misinformation and propaganda, and increasing the legal protections for journalists as well as media consumers. All of these measures were taken in an effort to combat the negative effects of misinformation and propaganda. According to one of the most important results from an inquiry that was carried out by the National Commission on Media Literacy, "a national effort to promote media literacy in the general population is urgently required (Piechowicz, 2016)."
1.1.3 Policy network role in education governance
When it comes to making decisions on public resources like schools and highways, a concept known as "networked governance" is often used. Examples of this concept include public-private partnerships. This is now possible in Europe as a result of changes to the market and decentralization in the public sector that have taken place during the last two decades (Galey-Horn & Ferrare, 2020). Because educational technology (also known as ed-tech) offers such substantial business opportunities, this was able to be accomplished. The marketplaces for education, technology, and entrepreneurship are all linked at this point, and each one is worth many billions of dollars. As a consequence of this, a more ordered space has emerged, within which educational ideas may be streamlined and controlled. As a consequence of this, the conditions under which democratic policymaking takes place have been transformed as a result of the opening of the door for new players with a wide range of interests to gain access to and have an impact on decisions regarding policy issues that have an impact on both the theory and the practice of education.
1.2 Digital technology in enhancing communication and improving the society
1.2.1 Digital tech role in bringing people together
Our community inherently social nature, we maintain a constant engagement with the people and environments that surround us. Our bodies begin to convey anger, anxiety, excitement, or compassion within seconds of us reading a newspaper, watching a television program, or talking with people online. This shift always causes some kind of physical effect, whether it is obvious or not. Recent studies in the area of neurology have shown that humans are able to subconsciously impact one another's neurological systems in a number of different ways (Miller, 2017). Our heart rate can be sped up or slowed down by words, glances, or voice signals, and our mirror neurons allow us to genuinely feel the pain or delight that we perceive in others, regardless of whether they appear on a computer, in a book, or in our immediate proximity. Our heart rate can be sped up or slowed down by words, glances, or voice signals. It is not just a question of how images, words, and sounds effect our bodies and brains biologically; rather, it is also a question of how media technology affects our perceptions of time and space, as well as the emotional displays of others and our own social reactions. Different forms of media have developed differing degrees of bias as they have expanded over space and time. The pace or rhythm that they impose on our day-to-day lives and on society as a whole has a profound influence on the emotional and social well-being of each of us as individuals. Because of the faster speed and more efficient transmission of content that comes with each new medium, an increasing number of individuals are being reached via means of communication that is mediated by computers. When it comes to interpersonal interaction and group participation, digital technologies present new avenues for boosting the emotional experiences that previous media have supplied us. These new avenues may also be used to improve the emotional experiences that we get from traditional media. Technology and social interactions have grown more entangled as a result of the global proliferation of social networking sites (Antonucci, Ajrouch, & Manalel, 2017). These sites allow users to stay connected and share, alter, and link to content at all times, which has led to a closer relationship between the two. Because of this, the practice of digital sociality currently takes place in very complicated informational and emotional contexts that are regulated by algorithmic governance and include unprecedented degrees of group interaction.
1.2.2 Socialization and effective atmosphere
According to Miller (2008) when it comes to communicating with people online, social networking is both analogous to and distinct from face-to-face communication in both its similarities and differences a point supported by Bruggencate and others (2019). When we connect with other people, we have a fundamental need to be accepted by them and to have positive feelings about ourselves. This stems from our intrinsic propensity for sociality and our want to be part of a community. This is analogous to how we experience and conduct ourselves in the context of physical encounters. Our social behaviors and demands are also adapted to the technological affordance, which is the type of communication that is permitted given the context and the capabilities of the technology. This affordance refers to the kind of communication that is made possible by the technological advancements. Technology does not only mediate sociality; rather, it transforms it. As a result, individuals engage in novel social behaviors and experience novel emotional atmospheres, which in turn influence how they see and experience the world. Since its inception, social networking websites have been widely used as a kind of technology to facilitate the formation of relationships via the sharing of feelings. The present form of digital communication portrays itself as the primary infrastructure of interpersonal and social relationships (Bruggencate, Luijkx, & Sturm, 2019). This is due to the fact that it places a significant focus on connection and mobility. It has been suggested that sites for social networking would improve communication between people and will also increase the amount of information that is shared collectively. Even so, the constant flow of instant messaging creates an emotive and highly emotional environment in which it is easy for us to be carried away and caught in the rhythms and raptures of an infinite stream of pictures, alerts, views, and assumptions that require our attention. In this environment, we may easily be carried away and caught in the rhythms and raptures of an endless stream of information. Communication on social networking sites is governed not only by speed but also by the emotional depth of the sender as well as the concision of the message. The time-saving function of compressed communication is manifested in short text messages, micro-blogging, comments, and/or tagging. This function is on the rise. According to Miller, maintaining a connected presence in the ever-expanding social networks of today requires consistently keeping in touch with one's connections (2008).
1.2.3 Culture, social norms and emotions
New sorts of group dynamics have emerged as a direct result of the manner in which social networking sites produce relational and emotional impulses. These new types of group dynamics have been facilitated by computer-mediated communication. When compared to other modes of communication like as print and television, the group community that exists on social networks is quite different from the imagined or abstract collectives that are supposed to characterize these media (Steinert & Dennis, 2022). In the past, being physically involved in a crowd was thought to offer distinctive qualities, such as the capacity to get an instant emotional response and the ability to communicate thoughts and information with a huge number of others. On social media platforms, it is not unusual to see relationships of this sort between users who know one other. Emotional immediacy is a vital affordance because of the variety of reactions and feedback loops that elevate the mood of the group. Collective emotions, by their very nature, change swiftly from one state to another. They are always on the move, jumping from one body to the next, increasing in number until they disappear and are replaced by new ones. They are constantly being replaced by new ones.
The connections that make up a social network are organized in a manner that makes it easier for people to convey passionate and emotional feelings to one another (Steinert & Dennis, 2022). Affective rhythms, such as those of love and affirmation, lend themselves particularly well to the expression of negative emotions such as hatred, fury, and fear. Some concepts and arguments need less thinking because of the intensity of their commitment, in contrast to others that are more ambiguous and have more nuances. Because of how we are now feeling, we often get the impression that we know something for a fact, even when this may not be the case. The authenticity of an initial emotion is experienced, making it uncomfortable, improper, surprising, and so on. In this context, objective facts are of less significance than appeals to feelings and ideas that already exist. The sharing of feelings, also known as affect transmission, is always a socially mediated process. Someone or something generates emotional reactions and emotions toward an object, which may subsequently be communicated to other people. These responses and feelings might be positive or negative.
Our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions of how others act all contribute to our sense of belonging to a certain group. Understanding how emotional communication may develop within the framework of a group requires a number of steps, one of which is the identification and definition of one's social identity. The social norms that regulate behavior in face-to-face interactions do not apply to the emotional outpourings that occur on social networking sites because of the possibility that they may be transferred and conveyed to other users. In today's world of computer-mediated communication, the restrictions that one must adhere to in terms of their feelings, attitudes, and behaviors are becoming less relevant. The invisibility of the isolated body, which means that people can act out without fear of social stigma or shame, and the existence of smaller group communities are two factors that contribute to a person's inability to regulate their emotions and emotional outbursts. Both of these factors help a person who is unable to control their emotions and emotional outbursts. It is becoming more normal practice for the standards and social affirmations of a certain group to be given priority in public places above broader societal norms and expectations. Social support, praise, and recognition among a group's members are equally as crucial to the experience of anxiety and danger from outside groups as the notion that certain groups are linked together by an external threat (Döveling, Harju, & Sommer, 2018). The social bond consists of the satisfying feeling of belonging to a group as well as the pleasant experience of expressing one's indignation and the object that it is targeted at with other individuals who feel the same way as you do who share the same sentiment.
1.3 Role of digital media in democracy and eliminating biasness
1.3.1 Digital media as a link in democratic chain
According to Weare studies conducted all across the globe, new forms of media and modern journalism may contribute to the dissemination of exaggerations and lies in a variety of different ways (2012). No matter how highly educated a someone may be, many people have reported that it is difficult for them to alter their beliefs, and this is especially true when the information presented to them is in direct opposition to their own personal values. Additionally, it might be difficult for younger generations to reevaluate politically charged historical narratives (Weare, 2012). People may more easily find themselves in what are being dubbed "digital echo chambers" since the proliferation of digital media has made it easier for them to be exposed to opinions that are compatible with their own worldviews. As a result of search engines, social media platforms, and news feeds modifying their algorithms to better satisfy our "needs," filter bubbles are produced as an unintended side effect. The presence of an informational "echo chamber" has been empirically shown by research that used data that was freely available to Facebook users. They came to the conclusion that "people typically choose to select and share content according to a given narrative and to discard the rest," which demonstrates how scientific knowledge and deceit are passed around in distinct networks. By using public services and popular media, individuals have the potential to build bridges amongst themselves. According to the findings of study conducted in Europe Dimitrova and others (2014), engagement in community activities has a direct bearing on people's reading habits (Dimitrova, Shehata, Strömbäck, & Nord, 2014). According to a number of in-depth studies conducted around Europe on the subject of their feeds, SVT, Aftonbladet, and Expressen have been discovered to be the most popular sources of news for adolescents in that region. As part of this study, students from all around Europe conducted a thorough investigation of the content of their individual news feeds. Their investigation revealed that just around 9 percent of the reports in the news could be relied upon as accurate.
The information that connected to health and medical, as well as themes relating to art and entertainment, was considered to be the least reliable. It was determined that public service media outlets, in particular, were trustworthy providers of information. On the other hand Dommett states that the dependability of a number of other news websites was called into doubt (2021). Before the election in 2018, a large number of young people put a significant amount of their trust in established media outlets. It is possible to build bridges using the power of news, but it seems that young people in Europe have obstacles when it comes to accessing the media as well as maintaining an interest in it. According to the findings of a recent research, young people in Europe do not live in informational echo chambers when it comes to taking in the news. Young people whose families have a subscription to prominent morning newspapers that hide their content behind "paywalls" are evidence that segregation is blatantly present in today's society (Dommett, 2021). By guaranteeing that all people have equal access to high-quality news, we can fight segregation and enhance democracy at the same time.
1.3.2 Democratic discourse
Individuals participating in democratic processes need to be well-informed and actively involved, and democratic public debates need to be accessible to as many people as possible in order to be open and welcoming to all participants (Spinner, 2012). The ability to freely express oneself and gain information, in addition to having access to media outlets that are both free and independent, are the pillars around which this kind of access is built. Individuals are able to express themselves and formulate ideas in a variety of everyday settings, both public and private, which are examples of the democratic ideal being put into effect. When people have a sense of safety and security, it increases the likelihood that they will participate in democratic discourse. Because of the rapid technical breakthroughs that have taken place in the digital sphere over the course of the last several decades, an unprecedented number of people are now capable of exchanging and participating in information, ideas, and perspectives. Because of the proliferation of the internet and other social media platforms, there has been a significant change in the manner in which democratic discussion may be carried out.
The advent of new challenges brought about by digitization, such as the proliferation of so-called "junk news" and an increase in hate speech and threats, has been shown to be detrimental to democracy and polite public dialogue. As a result, the discussion environment has become more contentious and polarized. The same cutting-edge technology that is enabling new ways for people to engage, new business opportunities, and new opportunities for learning and education may also violate people's privacy and civil freedoms. As a consequence of these challenges, people may develop less faith in institutions and in one another (Zhuravskaya, Petrova, & Enikolopov, 2020). This may result in an environment of negativity that inhibits individuals from participating more actively in public discourse, both in general and on digital platforms. According to the findings of certain studies, elected officials and journalists on the local level have a tendency to scale down their activities as a result of threats and intimidation. One statistic suggests that one local elected official in Europe has been harassed in some form, and as a direct consequence of this, one in every three local elected officials in Europe has chosen to remain silent.
Conventional media companies are having to rethink their business models in response to the increased competition from digital media companies because of fundamental changes occurring in people's habits about the information and entertainment they consume. Europe, along with the majority of other continents, is now discussing the most effective ways to deal with these problems. The significant impact that enormous internet platforms have on democracies, in addition to the duties, tasks, and responsibilities that come along with them, are also key causes for concern. There are a number of concerns that are now the subject of controversy, including power concentration, transparency, regulation vs self-regulation, and the security of people's data and integrity (Lorenz-Spreen, Oswald, & Lewandowsky, 2022). Member states, internet platforms, and other stakeholders are now having a conversation as part of the European Commission's efforts to address digital challenges such as fake news and disinformation. Through programs such as civic education, digital literacy, and media and information literacy, there is a rising awareness of the need of equipping people with more capabilities and expanding the scope of their knowledge. This awareness is accompanied by a growing sentiment of urgency.
1.3.3 Question of democracy and hate-speech
In June of 2018, the European red/green Government coalition published a document titled "Strategy for Strong Democracy: Promote, Consolidate, and protect." This document provided a summary of the current state of democracy in Europe as well as the challenges it faces, including developments such as segregation, lack of participation, fragmented media use, and various types of threats to public discourse, including extremism, hate speech, disinformation, and efforts to influence the political process. The document was intended to address the state of democracy (Reid, 2020). The plan proposes a variety of different courses of action that should be taken with the objective of making democracy more robust. Under the heading of "Democracy Learning," initiatives are discussed that have resulted in changes to policy, which have taken the shape of assignments and rewards given to actors in relevant fields. These initiatives include the creation of educational materials on democratic principles for immigrants who have only just arrived in the country, the improvement and growth of the role played by public libraries, and the reinforcement of the function of public libraries. In addition to these initiatives, the government has made it a priority to improve media and information literacy. This improvement is being accomplished through a national media and information literacy campaign as well as an emphasis on digital literacy and source critique in educational institutions. The Nordic Information and Communication Knowledge Center, also known as Nordicom, has been a significant contributor to both the foundation and the impetus for this endeavor (Trappel, 2019). In June of 2018, a comprehensive strategy on the aforementioned subjects was released, during which it was revealed what the present condition of media and information literacy is in the European Union, as well as the challenges and opportunities that lay ahead.
At major political events in today's world, it is almost expected for attendees to have conversations on the impact that search engines and social media platforms have on the way information circulates in society (Tsesis, 2019). To say that this situation puts democracy's fundamental principles at jeopardy would be an understatement: what's at issue here is control over information and knowledge. While it is claimed that commercial algorithms that are fueled by user-generated data make ideological divisions worse, it is a frequently held belief that targeted disinformation operations spread rapidly and easily across our digital information infrastructure. When it comes to finding a solution to this problem, there are often four different degrees of consideration:
1. Platform companies should be responsible for their own self-regulation;
2. Legislation should be changed and strengthened;
3. Support for the production, transmission, and vetting of credible knowledge through established institutions such as schools, libraries, and legacy media; and
4. Individuals should take responsibility for critically evaluating the information that they come across.
These two aspects, which come later in the list, are the ones that we want to discuss in this short article. To be more specific, we are concerned in the manner in which critical evaluation of information, which is an essential component of MIL, is expressed in contexts such as educational institutions and public libraries (Paz, Montero-Díaz, & Moreno-Delgado, 2020). What does it mean to evaluate information in light of the modern culture that we live in? Where is the benefit in that? How crucial is it to be able to argue against a statement when one is trying to make an evaluation of the information? Is there another method of evaluating information that may be used in certain circumstances that would be more appropriate? Do we need a broader perspective when evaluating information, one that takes into consideration the infrastructure that is engaged in the process by which we are informed? This raises the question of how elements such as feeds from social media platforms or search engine results might be included into the evaluation of information. In addition, what are the potential repercussions of defining information evaluation as a task that lies completely with the individual? In order to address these and other problems, it is required to conduct an investigation of the limitations posed by principally placing the onus of responsibility for evaluating information on the individual. In order to overcome these and other problems, we propose using the concepts of frictions in relevance and infrastructure meaning-making.
1.3.4 Democratic importance of youths media habits
There are a variety of ways in which differences in the amount of media that young people consume might have an effect on their political socialization. The term "political socialization" refers to the processes that individuals go through in the setting of a variety of social circumstances in order to mature into democratic citizens who have identities, interests, values, and unique ways of participating in politics (Kamau, 2017). There are three spheres of influence that have been affected by the media consumption patterns of young people.
According to the findings of the study by Keating and Melis, the usage of social media may cause these values to shift (2017). When people use social media to remain current on the most recent news and social problems, it's possible that their humanistic and self-transcendent beliefs are strengthened as a result. It has been shown that the most common uses of social media, such as maintaining contact with friends, publishing photographs of everyday life, and reading blogs, have a tendency to lower humanistic and altruistic values, while simultaneously encouraging hedonistic and self-focused values. The concepts of self-presentation, lifestyle, and consumerism are all over the place on social media, which is full with people trying to promote themselves (Keating & Melis, 2017). When young people participate in social media platforms, they bring their values with them, but the differences across groups become more obvious.
It has been shown that people's political knowledge, interest, and engagement in the democratic process all rise as they increase their intake of news. The act of keeping up with the news is sure to provoke both discussion and argument. For communities in which young people are given the opportunity to develop their own opinions and become more politically involved. According to the findings by Zyad (2021) students may develop an interest in current events related to politics and society while attending school. Consumption of news also has a role in the development and deepening of significant gaps among young people. Those who are already involved and active in a certain community have several reasons to keep themselves informed on the most recent happenings in that community. It is becoming more challenging to critically evaluate and examine the news that is shared on social media (Zyad, 2021). People's lifestyle choices and routines have a tendency to become more relevant to the extent to which they are exposed to genuine news, which may then lead to greater inequalities.
According to the findings by Chen and Stilinovic (2020), a significant number of young people are reluctant to express their political viewpoints on social media for fear that they will be questioned, exposed, and criticized without having the opportunity to defend themselves or determine how their words will be disseminated. A lot of individuals share their thoughts online, but they do so on websites where they know they will be seen by others who have the same point of view as them (Chen & Stilinovic, 2020). This is done so that they won't add to the environment of political division. In addition, the split between those who want to publicly express their ideas and those who would rather keep their thoughts to themselves may become even wider as a result of the use of social media.
22 May, 2022
Assignment Brief
我只负责写Section C，Section DE部分需要Excel spreadsheet，希望老师可以先完成spreadsheet部分让我发给组员。
Index data for US, Developed and Emerging markets is provided in the Assignment module and is adequate to complete the assignment. The data is provided from Q3 1994 to Q2 2021. Column labels/headers provide index details. Bonds’ data is provided in annual yields (% annual returns) while Equities are in quarterly index values (not %). CPI indexes are also in values (not %) and will be used to convert nominal returns to real returns. Teams must ensure that the returns for both asset classes and CPI are in quarterly format only.
Anne Marie has received $500,000 in inheritance and would like to setup a charity (in perpetuity) to help the disadvantaged families by providing 3 scholarships each year for three deserving high school students. The charity is estimated to cost $6000 for each student each year of charity and will increase with inflation. Anne also wishes that the charity fund should grow in real terms at the rate of 2% per annum and does not expect any further contributions. She estimates that portfolio managers charge 0.5% per annum to manage such an investment scheme. Anne has been provided with two pieces of advice: (i) the charity requires a growth strategy and she should choose a 40:60 (Bonds:Equity) benchmark, and (ii) the charity should have a specific required return objective instead.
Anne has sought analysis of the two investment objectives from prospective portfolio management teams. She has requested that all analysis should be conducted on a rolling 8 quarter basis and that investment should have a minimum of 70% of US Bonds and Equities. Emerging markets and Developed markets outside the US should be restricted to equities in large-capitalised firms only. Further, Anne will not invest in any alternative investments, nor will allow the portfolio manager to use derivatives, short positions, or leverage. Cash will not be held by the fund unless it is a residual amount (from sale of assets or remaining yields from equities or bonds). Anne has invited proposals for her charity funds from reputable portfolio managers. Invited investment proposal should be submitted by the 23rd May, 2022 and must cover the following 5 sections:
1. Establish and Justify Investment Risk and Return Objectives
2. Characteristics and Discussion on Assets/Indexes
3. Create competing Strategic asset Allocations (SAA)
4. Test competing asset allocations against each other
5. Recommendation of the SAA.
Each section is further elaborated below. In the event of any clarifications, investment teams can also post question, and respond to other teams’ questions, in the thread “Assignment Q&A” on the discussion board.
Specific Requirements
Section A: Investment Risk and Return Objectives (up to 20% of the assignment mark - maximum 500 words): Anne’s charity fund must have a return and risk objective and the risk objective should be appropriate for the return objective. Further details are provided below:
1. Return objectives that will (i) ensure an annual Spend , pay portfolio management fee of 0.5%, and (iii) potentially provide real growth of the fund on a rolling 8-quarter.
2. Risk objectives should have maximum (in magnitude and ignoring the sign) levels of absolute and relative risk measures established, and the recommended SAA’s risk levels must be lower to achieve the investment return objective.
Proposed absolute risk measure of volatility will be calculated from an appropriate allocation to US Bond and US Equity suitable to achieve the investment objective. Once the appropriate allocation has been created, teams will use this allocation of bonds:equity to calculate a relative risk measure of tracking error against the 40:60 US Bond:US Equity benchmark to achieve the investment. In this section, teams will only use Barclay’s U.S. Aggregate bond index (defense) and the MSCI US Equity index (for growth) that are highlighted in the excel spreadsheet. CPI data is also provided to ensure that all data used is in real terms and NOT in nominal terms. Investment proposals will use the data from Q4, 1994 to Q2, 2021 to formulate the defense:growth allocation that will achieve the investment objectives of the charity fund. Portfolio management teams will report the two risk objectives.
Section B: Characteristics and Description of Assets/Indexes (up to 20% of the assignment mark – maximum 1000 words): Anne has set the assets/indexes that must be used in creating this portfolio are: US large (LC) and small (SC) caps, EM and EAFE large caps (LC), US Government and US Corporate investment grade bonds.
Teams will first provide a summary description of each market segment (US LC and SC, EAFE, EM, US Government bonds and US Investment Grade Corporate bonds) using the MSCI factsheets (available from the MSCI website) for each asset/index. Each asset/index will be further examined by a discussion on the summary statistics of risk measures (downside and symmetric) and returns over the entire period of the data series. Teams will conclude the section by a discussion on returns and correlation against other assets/sub-assets over the same period. Teams will provide ONE table for the assets/indexes used in the SAA and the role each asset/index plays in achieving the investment objectives. Teams should note that specifications of the tests, data choice and data manipulation (including regressions) must be placed in the Appendix and not in the main body of the proposal.
Section C: Create 3 Asset Allocation(s) (up to 30% - maximum 1500 words): Anne would like to evaluate three different SAA, using any of the three portfolio construction techniques detailed below. Each asset allocations will be constructed using (i) quarterly real returns, and (ii) data from Q4 1994 to Q2 2021. Allocations must be whole numbers (for example a 9.5% allocation to US small cap growth should be changed to either 9% or 10%), and allocation to each asset must be in multiples of 5% (for example a 4% allocation to emerging market equities must be changed to 5%). Allocations adjustments may be programmed OR can be adjusted manually.
1. An optimised Mean-Variance SAA: MV Optimised SAA will be created using Excel Solver (or any optimisation program). Solver objective will be to either minimise an appropriate risk measure (not used in the constraint) or maximise an appropriate performance ratio. Solver constraints will include:
o No leverage or short selling
o Minimum allocation of 5% to each asset/index.
o Required return based on the return objective established in Section A above.
o Ensure a defense:growth bias as established in Section A above (note this is not the 40:60 BM).
o Constrain one risk measure appropriate for this investment objective.
Investment proposals have freedom to add additional constraints as deemed appropriate based on the asset/index characteristics and discussion in section B above and demonstrate that the investment objectives will be met. Teams will explain the process of creating this SAA (for example any additional constraints used).
2. A Risk-Allocated Portfolio: A risk-allocated SAA will be created using Excel Solver (or any optimisation program). Investment proposals have freedom to allocate risk (marginal contribution) as deemed appropriate based on the asset/index discussion in section B above and demonstrate that the investment objectives will be met. Constraints for this methodology may not be the same as for the mean variance optimisation. However, 5% allocation to each asset/index will be maintained. Teams will explain the process of creating this SAA (for example the MCR proportions used).
3. A Core-Satellite Portfolio: A Core-Satellite SAA will use the 40:60 benchmark to form the core of the SAA and the remaining assets will form satellites. The allocation to the core and satellite may be Quantitatively optimised on the $ or risk allocation, or Subjective based on the description and characteristics of each asset. A 5% allocation to each asset/Index will be maintained. Teams will explain the process of creating this SAA (for example any constraint, MCR proportion or subjective core/satellite allocation used).
Teams will compare the three SAAs qualitatively and quantitatively against the 40:60 benchmark in a single table. Quantitative comparison will compare average and active return, volatility tracking error and 90% VaR (parametric or non-parametric) of the three SAAs. Qualitative comparison will explain the relative performance and riskiness of the SAAs based on (the discussion on assets/sub-assets) in section B above. Teams should note that specifications of data choice and data manipulation (including regressions, outputs from Excel, etc.) must be placed in the Appendix and not in the main body of the proposal.
Section D: Asset Allocation Testing (up to 20% of the assignment mark - maximum 1000 words): Teams will demonstrate the viability of the proposed SAA by conducting Back Testing (including analysis on significant market events). The proposal will conduct these tests with real (not nominal) returns on the three SAAs and by using quarterly rebalancing. Test will use a starting value of $500K and each test will compare the three SAAs (both qualitative and quantitative) and by making the spend in Q4 of each year (spend will be limited to the erosion of fund value on a rolling 8 quarters). Invited proposals will demonstrate comparison between SAAs using well-labelled graphs and tables.
A Back Test of the three SAAs over the period [from Q4 1994 to Q2 2021]. Teams will discuss how each asset allocation performed in general AND during (i) troughs and (ii) peaks, using business cycle information from NBER. The discussion on the SAA performance will use the characteristics of each asset/index and their allocations in each SAA.
Teams should note that specifications of the tests, data choice and data manipulation (including regressions) must be placed in the Appendix and not in the main body of the proposal.
Section E: Recommendation (Up to 10% - maximum 1000 words): Teams will provide recommendations of the SAA to Anne. The recommendations will focus on achieving Anne’s charity fund investment objectives in the future.
1. Proposals will decide on, and justify, the SAA. Testing of competing SAAs in Section D provides insight into assets/sub-assets chosen and their allocations.
2. Performance of the fund during negative market conditions and the speed of recovery of fund’s real value.
Deliverables
1. The main report must be a single document (in pdf, doc or docx format) and will be submitted through Turnitin.
2. Excel spreadsheet (in xls or xlsx format) with all the work associated with the report will be submitted through Turnitin as well.
Index data for US, Developed and Emerging markets is provided in the Assignment module and is adequate to complete the assignment. The data is provided from Q3 1994 to Q2 2021. Column labels/headers provide index details. Bonds’ data is provided in annual yields (% annual returns) while Equities are in quarterly index values (not %). CPI indexes are also in values (not %) and will be used to convert nominal returns to real returns. Teams must ensure that the returns for both asset classes and CPI are in quarterly format only.
Anne Marie has received $500,000 in inheritance and would like to setup a charity (in perpetuity) to help the disadvantaged families by providing 3 scholarships each year for three deserving high school students. The charity is estimated to cost $6000 for each student each year of charity and will increase with inflation. Anne also wishes that the charity fund should grow in real terms at the rate of 2% per annum and does not expect any further contributions. She estimates that portfolio managers charge 0.5% per annum to manage such an investment scheme. Anne has been provided with two pieces of advice: (i) the charity requires a growth strategy and she should choose a 40:60 (Bonds:Equity) benchmark, and (ii) the charity should have a specific required return objective instead.
Anne has sought analysis of the two investment objectives from prospective portfolio management teams. She has requested that all analysis should be conducted on a rolling 8 quarter basis and that investment should have a minimum of 70% of US Bonds and Equities. Emerging markets and Developed markets outside the US should be restricted to equities in large-capitalised firms only. Further, Anne will not invest in any alternative investments, nor will allow the portfolio manager to use derivatives, short positions, or leverage. Cash will not be held by the fund unless it is a residual amount (from sale of assets or remaining yields from equities or bonds). Anne has invited proposals for her charity funds from reputable portfolio managers. Invited investment proposal should be submitted by the 23rd May, 2022 and must cover the following 5 sections:
1. Establish and Justify Investment Risk and Return Objectives
2. Characteristics and Discussion on Assets/Indexes
3. Create competing Strategic asset Allocations (SAA)
4. Test competing asset allocations against each other
5. Recommendation of the SAA.
Each section is further elaborated below. In the event of any clarifications, investment teams can also post question, and respond to other teams’ questions, in the thread “Assignment Q&A” on the discussion board.
Specific Requirements
Section A: Investment Risk and Return Objectives (up to 20% of the assignment mark - maximum 500 words): Anne’s charity fund must have a return and risk objective and the risk objective should be appropriate for the return objective. Further details are provided below:
1. Return objectives that will (i) ensure an annual Spend , pay portfolio management fee of 0.5%, and (iii) potentially provide real growth of the fund on a rolling 8-quarter.
2. Risk objectives should have maximum (in magnitude and ignoring the sign) levels of absolute and relative risk measures established, and the recommended SAA’s risk levels must be lower to achieve the investment return objective.
Proposed absolute risk measure of volatility will be calculated from an appropriate allocation to US Bond and US Equity suitable to achieve the investment objective. Once the appropriate allocation has been created, teams will use this allocation of bonds:equity to calculate a relative risk measure of tracking error against the 40:60 US Bond:US Equity benchmark to achieve the investment. In this section, teams will only use Barclay’s U.S. Aggregate bond index (defense) and the MSCI US Equity index (for growth) that are highlighted in the excel spreadsheet. CPI data is also provided to ensure that all data used is in real terms and NOT in nominal terms. Investment proposals will use the data from Q4, 1994 to Q2, 2021 to formulate the defense:growth allocation that will achieve the investment objectives of the charity fund. Portfolio management teams will report the two risk objectives.
Section B: Characteristics and Description of Assets/Indexes (up to 20% of the assignment mark – maximum 1000 words): Anne has set the assets/indexes that must be used in creating this portfolio are: US large (LC) and small (SC) caps, EM and EAFE large caps (LC), US Government and US Corporate investment grade bonds.
Teams will first provide a summary description of each market segment (US LC and SC, EAFE, EM, US Government bonds and US Investment Grade Corporate bonds) using the MSCI factsheets (available from the MSCI website) for each asset/index. Each asset/index will be further examined by a discussion on the summary statistics of risk measures (downside and symmetric) and returns over the entire period of the data series. Teams will conclude the section by a discussion on returns and correlation against other assets/sub-assets over the same period. Teams will provide ONE table for the assets/indexes used in the SAA and the role each asset/index plays in achieving the investment objectives. Teams should note that specifications of the tests, data choice and data manipulation (including regressions) must be placed in the Appendix and not in the main body of the proposal.
Section C: Create 3 Asset Allocation(s) (up to 30% - maximum 1500 words): Anne would like to evaluate three different SAA, using any of the three portfolio construction techniques detailed below. Each asset allocations will be constructed using (i) quarterly real returns, and (ii) data from Q4 1994 to Q2 2021. Allocations must be whole numbers (for example a 9.5% allocation to US small cap growth should be changed to either 9% or 10%), and allocation to each asset must be in multiples of 5% (for example a 4% allocation to emerging market equities must be changed to 5%). Allocations adjustments may be programmed OR can be adjusted manually.
1. An optimised Mean-Variance SAA: MV Optimised SAA will be created using Excel Solver (or any optimisation program). Solver objective will be to either minimise an appropriate risk measure (not used in the constraint) or maximise an appropriate performance ratio. Solver constraints will include:
o No leverage or short selling
o Minimum allocation of 5% to each asset/index.
o Required return based on the return objective established in Section A above.
o Ensure a defense:growth bias as established in Section A above (note this is not the 40:60 BM).
o Constrain one risk measure appropriate for this investment objective.
Investment proposals have freedom to add additional constraints as deemed appropriate based on the asset/index characteristics and discussion in section B above and demonstrate that the investment objectives will be met. Teams will explain the process of creating this SAA (for example any additional constraints used).
2. A Risk-Allocated Portfolio: A risk-allocated SAA will be created using Excel Solver (or any optimisation program). Investment proposals have freedom to allocate risk (marginal contribution) as deemed appropriate based on the asset/index discussion in section B above and demonstrate that the investment objectives will be met. Constraints for this methodology may not be the same as for the mean variance optimisation. However, 5% allocation to each asset/index will be maintained. Teams will explain the process of creating this SAA (for example the MCR proportions used).
3. A Core-Satellite Portfolio: A Core-Satellite SAA will use the 40:60 benchmark to form the core of the SAA and the remaining assets will form satellites. The allocation to the core and satellite may be Quantitatively optimised on the $ or risk allocation, or Subjective based on the description and characteristics of each asset. A 5% allocation to each asset/Index will be maintained. Teams will explain the process of creating this SAA (for example any constraint, MCR proportion or subjective core/satellite allocation used).
Teams will compare the three SAAs qualitatively and quantitatively against the 40:60 benchmark in a single table. Quantitative comparison will compare average and active return, volatility tracking error and 90% VaR (parametric or non-parametric) of the three SAAs. Qualitative comparison will explain the relative performance and riskiness of the SAAs based on (the discussion on assets/sub-assets) in section B above. Teams should note that specifications of data choice and data manipulation (including regressions, outputs from Excel, etc.) must be placed in the Appendix and not in the main body of the proposal.
Section D: Asset Allocation Testing (up to 20% of the assignment mark - maximum 1000 words): Teams will demonstrate the viability of the proposed SAA by conducting Back Testing (including analysis on significant market events). The proposal will conduct these tests with real (not nominal) returns on the three SAAs and by using quarterly rebalancing. Test will use a starting value of $500K and each test will compare the three SAAs (both qualitative and quantitative) and by making the spend in Q4 of each year (spend will be limited to the erosion of fund value on a rolling 8 quarters). Invited proposals will demonstrate comparison between SAAs using well-labelled graphs and tables.
A Back Test of the three SAAs over the period [from Q4 1994 to Q2 2021]. Teams will discuss how each asset allocation performed in general AND during (i) troughs and (ii) peaks, using business cycle information from NBER. The discussion on the SAA performance will use the characteristics of each asset/index and their allocations in each SAA.
Teams should note that specifications of the tests, data choice and data manipulation (including regressions) must be placed in the Appendix and not in the main body of the proposal.
Section E: Recommendation (Up to 10% - maximum 1000 words): Teams will provide recommendations of the SAA to Anne. The recommendations will focus on achieving Anne’s charity fund investment objectives in the future.
1. Proposals will decide on, and justify, the SAA. Testing of competing SAAs in Section D provides insight into assets/sub-assets chosen and their allocations.
2. Performance of the fund during negative market conditions and the speed of recovery of fund’s real value.
Deliverables
1. The main report must be a single document (in pdf, doc or docx format) and will be submitted through Turnitin.
2. Excel spreadsheet (in xls or xlsx format) with all the work associated with the report will be submitted through Turnitin as well.
15 May, 2022
Heart Disease Prediction using Matlab
Introduction
Despite its importance, cardiology is also one of the most difficult specialties in medicine to practice well. If cardiac disease is not detected in its early stages, it has the potential to be lethal. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), over 610000 people die from heart disease each year, accounting for one out of every four deaths, and this figure is increasing. An investigation by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated that men were responsible for more than half of all similar diseases discovered in 2009.
Visualization
Target is our response variable, which contains binary data in the form of either 0 or 1. The number 1 indicates that the individual has heart disease, whereas the number 0 shows that the individual does not have heart disease.
Based on these data, it was determined that the normal distribution applied to all four variables in this investigation. For the purpose of visualizing the relationship, the terms "target" and "all other variables" were plotted on a correlation matrix. We selected to focus on four independent factors since the number of available independent variables was large. These are the variables that physicians give the most attention to when attempting to diagnose the condition (cholesterol, heart rate, chest pain, and rest ECG test). The following is a representation of the correlation matrix:
Although doctors have focused more on those four indicators, we can see from the matrix that cholesterol, resting heart rate, and an ECG do not have a significant correlation with the dependent variable, despite the increased emphasis.
Prediction
Logistic regression model
When attempting to forecast the relationship between a category answer variable and a number of categorical independent variables, Logistic Regression was used. Approximately 75% of the dataset was utilized for training, while the remaining 25% was used for testing purposes.
According to the findings of the study, factors such as gender, chest pain, the number of visible major arteries, and the maximum heart rate all have an influence on the development of heart disease. Following that, we took the choice to create a new dataset that included only statistically significant elements.
Before applying the model, it is possible to utilize the variance inflation factor to identify whether or not there is multicollinearity in the data.
VIF seems to be modest, and the data does not appear to be multicollinear. The logit model can now be applied to significant variables data, thus we may proceed.
As can be seen, all of the criteria are significant, which is beneficial for making predictions. Let's have a look at how the connection works.
According to the above figure type 2 chest pain, according to the research shown above, is the type of chest pain that is most strongly connected with heart disease. When a person has chest pain, they may exhibit any or all of the signs of cardiac illness. Exercise-induced angina and an increase in the size of the major arteries help to reduce the risk of heart disease. Despite the fact that we achieved good results for our variance inflation factor, we nevertheless utilized cross validation using the trainControl() method to avoid overfitting.
The accuracy of the model is 0.8421 that can be translated to 84.21%.
Conclusion
A prediction model based on our study has an accuracy of 84.21%, and it can inform us whether or not we should take steps to lower our risk of having heart disease and stroke. In order to predict the connection between a categorical response variable and a number of categorical independent variables, we employed Logistic Regression. It is possible to increase the importance of various characteristics and to broaden the scope of our data collection in order to get better results.
Despite its importance, cardiology is also one of the most difficult specialties in medicine to practice well. If cardiac disease is not detected in its early stages, it has the potential to be lethal. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), over 610000 people die from heart disease each year, accounting for one out of every four deaths, and this figure is increasing. An investigation by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated that men were responsible for more than half of all similar diseases discovered in 2009.
Visualization
Target is our response variable, which contains binary data in the form of either 0 or 1. The number 1 indicates that the individual has heart disease, whereas the number 0 shows that the individual does not have heart disease.
Based on these data, it was determined that the normal distribution applied to all four variables in this investigation. For the purpose of visualizing the relationship, the terms "target" and "all other variables" were plotted on a correlation matrix. We selected to focus on four independent factors since the number of available independent variables was large. These are the variables that physicians give the most attention to when attempting to diagnose the condition (cholesterol, heart rate, chest pain, and rest ECG test). The following is a representation of the correlation matrix:
Although doctors have focused more on those four indicators, we can see from the matrix that cholesterol, resting heart rate, and an ECG do not have a significant correlation with the dependent variable, despite the increased emphasis.
Prediction
Logistic regression model
When attempting to forecast the relationship between a category answer variable and a number of categorical independent variables, Logistic Regression was used. Approximately 75% of the dataset was utilized for training, while the remaining 25% was used for testing purposes.
According to the findings of the study, factors such as gender, chest pain, the number of visible major arteries, and the maximum heart rate all have an influence on the development of heart disease. Following that, we took the choice to create a new dataset that included only statistically significant elements.
Before applying the model, it is possible to utilize the variance inflation factor to identify whether or not there is multicollinearity in the data.
VIF seems to be modest, and the data does not appear to be multicollinear. The logit model can now be applied to significant variables data, thus we may proceed.
As can be seen, all of the criteria are significant, which is beneficial for making predictions. Let's have a look at how the connection works.
According to the above figure type 2 chest pain, according to the research shown above, is the type of chest pain that is most strongly connected with heart disease. When a person has chest pain, they may exhibit any or all of the signs of cardiac illness. Exercise-induced angina and an increase in the size of the major arteries help to reduce the risk of heart disease. Despite the fact that we achieved good results for our variance inflation factor, we nevertheless utilized cross validation using the trainControl() method to avoid overfitting.
The accuracy of the model is 0.8421 that can be translated to 84.21%.
Conclusion
A prediction model based on our study has an accuracy of 84.21%, and it can inform us whether or not we should take steps to lower our risk of having heart disease and stroke. In order to predict the connection between a categorical response variable and a number of categorical independent variables, we employed Logistic Regression. It is possible to increase the importance of various characteristics and to broaden the scope of our data collection in order to get better results.
Ozone Data Analysis Using Ozone Dataset
1 Data exploration
Several skewed variables may be seen in this dataset
We anticipate collinearity in the data due to the nature of the data.
A generic linear model of the data may also be used to detect collinearity and skewness, which we will discuss in more detail below. Take note of the collinearity in the Residuals vs Fitted plot, as well as the skewness in the Residuals vs Leverage plot, which are both shown in the figure.
2 Analysis
HourAverageMax and visibility were skewed to the right while pressure500Height is skewed in the ozone dataset. These variables are collinear, such as tempSandburg and inversionBaseTemp. Considering that the data was collected on a daily basis and weather patterns tend to stick around for a while, this is expected.
Because of this, penalized regression and decision trees were employed to select the best model for predicting the answer. When dealing with collinearity, penalized regression is an alternative to classical subset selection. As a result of this integration, decision trees are resistant to skewness. In order to decrease the correlations in our predictions, we may utilize random forests to pick from a subset of variables at each node. It's conceivable that we'll get it right this time.
Using ten-fold cross-validation, the models were evaluated. The optimal settings for penalized regression were determined to be:
Boosted and bagged random forest decision trees were also tuned using ten-fold cross-validation. The boosted models were used to assess shrinkage and interaction.depth. For the random forest model, the number of predictors, or mtry, was adjusted.
The Double CV was used to evaluate the following models, which are listed below:
1. Penalized regression with alpha =.06 and lambda = 0.062662 using the glmnet function with alpha =.06 and lambda = 0.062662
2. It is possible to increase the performance of decision trees by using the gbm function with shrinkage =.001 and interaction depth = 4.
3. In order to build a random forest, randomForests is utilized in conjunction with two predictors.
We employed the double CV strategy to arrive at Model 3, the Random Forest model, which resulted in the following results.
Double CV evaluation on random forest model (3)
A respectable amount of variance was explained by the selected model, which was demonstrated to account for around 75% of the variation in the test data.
3 Random forest model results and conclusion
In the area of Upland, California, the variable significance plot reveals that temperature is the most important factor to consider when determining the concentration of ozone. Pressure and humidity are right on its heels, following closely after. This is due to the fact that ozone's activity under pressure is to condense, and so these critical characteristics are self-evident. When there is a high quantity of humidity in the air, ozone has a difficult time dissipating from the atmosphere.
Finally, I'd urge app developers that use our algorithm to make sure they convey the accuracy of the approach to their users in an appropriate manner. Although a forecasting program with an estimated accuracy of 75% is acceptable, ozone levels more than 0.1 parts per million (ppm) constitute a significant hazard to human health and should be avoided. The app should provide a warning and give links to more up-to-date information if the algorithm is not updated in real time, so order to avoid widespread fear or a false sense of security. Additional data must be collected in order to obtain a more accurate forecast of the response variable. Thus, app developers would be able to provide the general public with an accurate and very precise ozone alert forecasting system as a consequence of this.
Several skewed variables may be seen in this dataset
We anticipate collinearity in the data due to the nature of the data.
A generic linear model of the data may also be used to detect collinearity and skewness, which we will discuss in more detail below. Take note of the collinearity in the Residuals vs Fitted plot, as well as the skewness in the Residuals vs Leverage plot, which are both shown in the figure.
2 Analysis
HourAverageMax and visibility were skewed to the right while pressure500Height is skewed in the ozone dataset. These variables are collinear, such as tempSandburg and inversionBaseTemp. Considering that the data was collected on a daily basis and weather patterns tend to stick around for a while, this is expected.
Because of this, penalized regression and decision trees were employed to select the best model for predicting the answer. When dealing with collinearity, penalized regression is an alternative to classical subset selection. As a result of this integration, decision trees are resistant to skewness. In order to decrease the correlations in our predictions, we may utilize random forests to pick from a subset of variables at each node. It's conceivable that we'll get it right this time.
Using ten-fold cross-validation, the models were evaluated. The optimal settings for penalized regression were determined to be:
Boosted and bagged random forest decision trees were also tuned using ten-fold cross-validation. The boosted models were used to assess shrinkage and interaction.depth. For the random forest model, the number of predictors, or mtry, was adjusted.
The Double CV was used to evaluate the following models, which are listed below:
1. Penalized regression with alpha =.06 and lambda = 0.062662 using the glmnet function with alpha =.06 and lambda = 0.062662
2. It is possible to increase the performance of decision trees by using the gbm function with shrinkage =.001 and interaction depth = 4.
3. In order to build a random forest, randomForests is utilized in conjunction with two predictors.
We employed the double CV strategy to arrive at Model 3, the Random Forest model, which resulted in the following results.
Double CV evaluation on random forest model (3)
A respectable amount of variance was explained by the selected model, which was demonstrated to account for around 75% of the variation in the test data.
3 Random forest model results and conclusion
In the area of Upland, California, the variable significance plot reveals that temperature is the most important factor to consider when determining the concentration of ozone. Pressure and humidity are right on its heels, following closely after. This is due to the fact that ozone's activity under pressure is to condense, and so these critical characteristics are self-evident. When there is a high quantity of humidity in the air, ozone has a difficult time dissipating from the atmosphere.
Finally, I'd urge app developers that use our algorithm to make sure they convey the accuracy of the approach to their users in an appropriate manner. Although a forecasting program with an estimated accuracy of 75% is acceptable, ozone levels more than 0.1 parts per million (ppm) constitute a significant hazard to human health and should be avoided. The app should provide a warning and give links to more up-to-date information if the algorithm is not updated in real time, so order to avoid widespread fear or a false sense of security. Additional data must be collected in order to obtain a more accurate forecast of the response variable. Thus, app developers would be able to provide the general public with an accurate and very precise ozone alert forecasting system as a consequence of this.
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